Khác biệt giữa các bản “Trung đại”

Phiên bản lúc 19:32, ngày 26 tháng 10 năm 2020

Trung đại là thuật ngữ do học giới hiện đại áp dụng cho giai đoạn trung gian trong tiến trình lịch sử nhân loại. Tuy nhiên, tùy mỗi ý thức hệ lại có cách phân biệt mốc thời gian khác nhau.

Thuật ngữ

Trung đại (中代) là lối diễn Nôm thuật ngữ media tempestas xuất hiện trong một văn bản Latin năm 1469, sau được biến thể nhiều ngôn ngữ khác^[1]^[2]^[3]. Trong các tài liệu Việt Nam thập niên 1980 về trước, thuật ngữ này đôi khi được diễn nghĩa tối là trung cổ, nay đã bỏ.

Lịch sử

Trung đại là giai đoạn lịch sử tương đối dài, nhưng so với tiền thân là cổ đại, giai đoạn này gắn với sự kiện toàn hóa các thiết chế chính trị và pháp luật để tiến tới kiến tạo mô hình quốc gia, đặc biệt là sự thăng hoa văn nghệ để tiến tới kiến tạo bản sắc quốc gia hoặc thị tộc, ngoài ra báo hiệu sự phát triển thương nghiệp và kĩ nghệ. Đây cũng là thời đại chứng kiến sức công phá tàn bạo của chiến tranh, dịch bệnh và thiên tai, mà nhờ thế làm căn bản cho sự hoàn thiện hóa các lí thuyết về nhân học và cả nhân trị.

Á châu

Lịch sử trung đại Á châu thường được coi là giai đoạn vẻ vang nhất, thậm chí có những thời điểm người Á châu tự hào là trung tâm văn minh thế giới. Tuy vậy, toàn bộ văn minh Á châu trung đại căn bản tiến triển theo 3 trục :

Trung Đông : Lấy tâm điểm là bán đảo Arab, hầu như được đồng nhất với giai đoạn thăng hoa của các đế quốc sùng đạo Islam rồi được đế quốc Osman kế tục. Tiên khởi từ năm 622 (năm 1 Hồi lịch) khi Đấng Tiên Tri rời Makkah đi Madinah^[4]^[5], kết thúc năm 1923 khi đế quốc Osman cáo chung.
Ấn Độ : Lịch sử trung đại thường được coi là thời hoàng kim, bắt đầu từ năm 230 TCN và kết thúc vào năm 1757^[6]^[7]^[8].
Trung Hoa : Các quốc gia Hán quyển đôi khi gọi giai đoạn này là thời kì phong kiến quân chủ bởi đặc tính tông chủ hóa trong hình thái chính trị xã hội. Năm tiên khởi được coi là khoảng 206 TCN khi triều Hán căn bản thống nhất vùng lõi Hán quyển sau nhiều năm đại loạn và phân liệt. Mốc kết thúc là năm 1911 với sự kiện Tân Hợi cách mạng chuyển Trung Hoa từ quân chủ chuyên chế sang cộng hòa ; tuy nhiên, có quan điểm coi mốc này là năm 1868 khi Nhật hoàng Minh Trị tiến hành duy tân thắng lợi. Đây cũng là thời kì thiết kế tam giáo đồng nguyên đạt cực thịnh và Nho giáo có vị thế độc tôn trong sự kiến tạo đặc sắc chính trị văn hóa.

Âu châu

Lịch sử trung đại Âu châu được phân thành 3 giai đoạn : Sơ kì, trung kì và hậu kì. Theo truyền thống, mốc khởi đầu là năm 476 SCN với sự kiện La Mã đế quốc phân liệt hóa^[9], thời điểm kết thúc là năm 1350 khi Hắc Tử Bệnh làm tê liệt hình thái chính trị xã hội lỗi thời và thúc đẩy tiến trình khai phóng toàn diện. Có thời kì dài trong thế kỉ XIX, học giới Âu châu coi trung đại là thời hắc ám bởi ở phần lớn thời gian tồn tại đặc tính hỗn loạn về thiết chế chính trị xã hội và tù đọng về phương diện tinh thần, ngoài ra do tri thức về thời đại này còn lắm tồn nghi. Thành kiến này tới nay đã bị bác do sự phát triển của văn tự học và khảo cổ học.

Tham khảo

Văn học trung đại

Liên kết

↑ Power, Central Middle Ages p. 3
↑ Miglio "Curial Humanism", Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism p. 112
↑ Albrow, Global Age p. 205
↑ Shaikh, Fazlur Rehman (2001), Chronology of Prophetic Events, London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., tr. 51–52
↑ Marom, Roy (Fall 2017), "Approaches to the Research of Early Islam : The Hijrah in Western Historiography", Jama'a, 23: vii
↑ Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher; Cynthia Talbot (2006), India before Europe, Cambridge University Press, tr. 265, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
↑ A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism : Sikh Religion and Philosophy, p. 86, Routledge, W. Owen Cole, Piara Singh Sambhi, 2005
↑ Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129
↑ Sự kết thúc trung đại Âu châu

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Tư liệu

[1] Power, Central Middle Ages p. 3

[2] Miglio "Curial Humanism", Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism p. 112

[3] Albrow, Global Age p. 205

[4] Shaikh, Fazlur Rehman (2001), Chronology of Prophetic Events, London: Ta-Ha Publishers Ltd., tr. 51–52

[5] Marom, Roy (Fall 2017), "Approaches to the Research of Early Islam : The Hijrah in Western Historiography", Jama'a, 23: vii

[6] Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher; Cynthia Talbot (2006), India before Europe, Cambridge University Press, tr. 265, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7

[7] A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism : Sikh Religion and Philosophy, p. 86, Routledge, W. Owen Cole, Piara Singh Sambhi, 2005

[8] Khushwant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129

[9] Sự kết thúc trung đại Âu châu

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

@@ Dòng 37: / Dòng 37: @@
 * {{cite book |author=Curta, Florin |title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages 500–1250 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-89452-2}}
 * {{cite book |author=Davies, Norman |author-link=Norman Davies |title=Europe: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1996 |isbn=0-19-520912-5}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Dawtry, Anne |title=Agriculture |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=15–16}}
+* {{cite book |author=Dawtry, Anne |title=Agriculture |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=15–16}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Denley, Peter |title=The Mediterranean in the Age of the Renaissance, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=235–296}}
+* {{cite book |author=Denley, Peter |title=The Mediterranean in the Age of the Renaissance, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=235–296}}
 * {{cite book |author=Dodwell, C. R. |title=The Pictorial Arts of the West: 800–1200 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |series=Pellican History of Art |year=1993 |isbn=0-300-06493-4}}
 * {{cite book |author=Epstein, Steven A. |title=An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000–1500 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-70653-7}}
@@ Dòng 62: / Dòng 62: @@
 * {{cite book |author=Keen, Maurice |title=The Pelican History of Medieval Europe |publisher=Penguin Books |location=London |origyear=1968 |year=1988 |isbn=0-14-021085-7}}
 * {{cite book |author=Kitzinger, Ernst |author-link=Ernst Kitzinger |title=Early Medieval Art at the British Museum |year=1955 |edition=Second |publisher=British Museum |location=London |oclc=510455}}
-* {{cite web|author=Knox, E. L. |url=http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |title=History of the Idea of the Renaissance |work=Europe in the Late Middle Ages |access-date=25 December 2012 |publisher=Boise State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |archive-date=3 February 2012 |url-status=dead |df= }}
+* {{cite book|author=Knox, E. L. |url=http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |title=History of the Idea of the Renaissance |work=Europe in the Late Middle Ages |access-date=25 December 2012 |publisher=Boise State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203005134/http://www.boisestate.edu/courses/latemiddleages/renaissance/historyren.shtml |archive-date=3 February 2012 |url-status=dead |df= }}
 * {{cite book |author=Lasko, Peter |author-link=Peter Lasko |title=Ars Sacra, 800–1200 |series=Penguin History of Art (now Yale) |year=1972 |publisher=Penguin |location=New York |isbn=0-14-056036-X}}
 * {{cite book |author=Lawrence, C.H |title=Medieval Monasticism: Forms of Religious Life in Western Europe in the Middle Ages |publisher=Longman |edition=Third |location=Harlow, UK |isbn=0-582-40427-4 |year=2001}}
 * {{cite book |author=Lightbown, Ronald W. |title=Secular Goldsmiths' Work in Medieval France: A History |series=Reports of the Research Committee of the Society of Antiquaries of London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=0-500-99027-1 |year=1978}}
-* {{cite journal |author1=Lindberg, David C. |authorlink1=David C. Lindberg |author2=Numbers, Ronald L. |authorlink2=Ronald Numbers |title=Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science |journal=Church History |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=338–354 |year=1986 |doi=10.2307/3166822 |jstor=3166822}}
+* {{cite book |author1=Lindberg, David C. |authorlink1=David C. Lindberg |author2=Numbers, Ronald L. |authorlink2=Ronald Numbers |title=Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science |journal=Church History |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=338–354 |year=1986 |doi=10.2307/3166822 |jstor=3166822}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Lindberg, David C. |authorlink=David C. Lindberg |title=The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor |editor1=Lindberg, David C.|editor2= Numbers, Ronald L. |encyclopedia=When Science & Christianity Meet |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-226-48214-6}}
+* {{cite book |author=Lindberg, David C. |authorlink=David C. Lindberg |title=The Medieval Church Encounters the Classical Tradition: Saint Augustine, Roger Bacon, and the Handmaiden Metaphor |editor1=Lindberg, David C.|editor2= Numbers, Ronald L. |encyclopedia=When Science & Christianity Meet |location=Chicago, IL |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-226-48214-6}}
 * {{cite book |author=Lock, Peter |title=Routledge Companion to the Crusades |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |year=2006 |isbn=0-415-39312-4}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Avignon |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=45}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Avignon |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=45}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=122}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Eleanor of Aquitaine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=122}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Famine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=127–128}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Famine |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=127–128}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Great Schism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=153}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Great Schism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=153}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Hundred Years' War |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=176}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Hundred Years' War |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=176}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Jews |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=190–192}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Jews |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=190–192}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Knights of the Temple (Templars) |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=201–202}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Knights of the Temple (Templars) |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=201–202}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Language and dialect |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=204}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Language and dialect |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |page=204}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Scholasticism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=293–294}}
+* {{cite book |author=Loyn, H. R. |authorlink=H. R. Loyn |title=Scholasticism |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=293–294}}
 * {{cite book |author=Martin, Janet |title=Medieval Russia 980–1584 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1993 |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |isbn=0-521-36832-4}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |title=Mediaeval | encyclopedia =The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary: Complete Text Arranged Micrographically: Volume I A–0 |page=M290 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Glasgow |year=1971 |lccn= 72177361|oclc= 490339790 }}
+* {{cite book |title=Mediaeval | encyclopedia =The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary: Complete Text Arranged Micrographically: Volume I A–0 |page=M290 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Glasgow |year=1971 |lccn= 72177361|oclc= 490339790 }}
-* {{cite dictionary |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages |title=Middle Ages |dictionary=Dictionary.com |year=2004 |accessdate=7 April 2012}}
+* {{cite book |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Middle%20Ages |title=Middle Ages |dictionary=Dictionary.com |year=2004 |accessdate=7 April 2012}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Miglio, Massimo |title=Curial Humanism seen through the Prism of the Papal Library |editor=Mazzocco, Angelo |encyclopedia=Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |pages=97–112 |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-15244-1 |series=Brill's Studies in Intellectual History}}
+* {{cite book |author=Miglio, Massimo |title=Curial Humanism seen through the Prism of the Papal Library |editor=Mazzocco, Angelo |encyclopedia=Interpretations of Renaissance Humanism |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |pages=97–112 |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-15244-1 |series=Brill's Studies in Intellectual History}}
-* {{cite journal |author=Mommsen, Theodore E.|author-link=Theodor Ernst Mommsen |title=Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages' |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=226–242 |date=April 1942 |jstor=2856364 |doi=10.2307/2856364}}
+* {{cite book |author=Mommsen, Theodore E.|author-link=Theodor Ernst Mommsen |title=Petrarch's Conception of the 'Dark Ages' |journal=[[Speculum (journal)|Speculum]] |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=226–242 |date=April 1942 |jstor=2856364 |doi=10.2307/2856364}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Morris, Rosemary |title=Northern Europe invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=175–234}}
+* {{cite book |author=Morris, Rosemary |title=Northern Europe invades the Mediterranean, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=175–234}}
-* {{cite journal |author=Murray, Alexander |title=Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished? |journal=Essays in Medieval Studies |volume=21 |year=2004 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1353/ems.2005.0010}}
+* {{cite book |author=Murray, Alexander |title=Should the Middle Ages Be Abolished? |journal=Essays in Medieval Studies |volume=21 |year=2004 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1353/ems.2005.0010}}
 * {{cite book |author=Nees, Lawrence |title=Early Medieval Art |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford History of Art |location=Oxford, UK |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-284243-5}}
 * {{cite book |author=Nicolle, David |author-link=David Nicolle |title=Medieval Warfare Source Book: Warfare In Western Christendom |publisher=Brockhampton Press |location=London |year=1999 |isbn=1-86019-889-9}}
-* {{cite web |author=Numbers, Ronald |author-link=Ronald Numbers |url=https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf |title=Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective |work=Lecture archive |date=11 May 2006 |publisher=The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion |access-date=25 January 2013}}
+* {{cite book |author=Numbers, Ronald |author-link=Ronald Numbers |url=https://www.faraday.st-edmunds.cam.ac.uk/CIS/Numbers/Numbers_Lecture.pdf |title=Myths and Truths in Science and Religion: A historical perspective |work=Lecture archive |date=11 May 2006 |publisher=The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion |access-date=25 January 2013}}
 * {{cite book |author=Payne, Robert |author-link=Robert Payne (author) |title=The Dream and the Tomb: A History of the Crusades |publisher=Cooper Square Press |location=New York |edition=First paperback |year=2000 |isbn=0-8154-1086-7}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Peters, Ted |authorlink=Ted Peters (theologian) |title=Science and Religion |editor=Jones, Lindsay |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |edition=Second |volume=12 |publisher=MacMillan Reference |location=Detroit, MI |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865980-0 |page=8182}}
+* {{cite book |author=Peters, Ted |authorlink=Ted Peters (theologian) |title=Science and Religion |editor=Jones, Lindsay |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion |edition=Second |volume=12 |publisher=MacMillan Reference |location=Detroit, MI |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-02-865980-0 |page=8182}}
 * {{cite book |author=Pounds, N. J. G. |year=1990 |title=An Historical Geography of Europe |location= Cambridge, UK |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 0521322170}}
 * {{cite book |author=Power, Daniel |year=2006 |title=The Central Middle Ages: Europe 950–1320 |series=The Short Oxford History of Europe |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-19-925312-8}}
 * {{cite book |author=Reilly, Bernard F. |title=The Medieval Spains |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1993 |isbn=0-521-39741-3 |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Riley-Smith, Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=Crusades |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=106–107}}
+* {{cite book |author=Riley-Smith, Jonathan |authorlink=Jonathan Riley-Smith |title=Crusades |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=106–107}}
 * {{cite book |author=Rosenwein, Barbara H. |title=Rhinoceros Bound: Cluny in the Tenth Century |location=Philadelphia, PA |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1982 |isbn=0-8122-7830-5}}
 * {{cite book |author=Russell, Jeffey Burton |title=Inventing the Flat Earth-Columbus and Modern Historians |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport, CT |year=1991 |isbn=0-275-95904-X}}
 * {{cite book |author=Saul, Nigel |author-link=Nigel Saul |title=A Companion to Medieval England 1066–1485 |year=2000 |publisher=Tempus |location=Stroud, UK |isbn=0-7524-2969-8}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Schove, D. Justin |title=Plague |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=267–269}}
+* {{cite book |author=Schove, D. Justin |title=Plague |encyclopedia=The Middle Ages: A Concise Encyclopedia |publisher=Thames and Hudson |editor=Loyn, H. R. |location=London |year=1989 |isbn=0-500-27645-5 |pages=267–269}}
 * {{cite book |author=Singman, Jeffrey L. |title=Daily Life in Medieval Europe |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, CT |series=Daily Life Through History |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30273-1}}
 * {{cite book |author=Stalley, Roger |title=Early Medieval Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford History of Art |location=Oxford, UK |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-284223-7}}
 * {{cite book |author1=Tansey, Richard G. |author2=Gardner, Helen Louise |author3=De la Croix, Horst |title=Gardner's Art Through the Ages |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |location=San Diego, CA |year=1986 |isbn=0-15-503763-3 |edition=Eighth}}
 * {{cite book |author=Thomson, John A. F. |title=The Western Church in the Middle Ages |publisher=Arnold |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-340-60118-3}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Vale, Malcolm |title=The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=297–351}}
+* {{cite book |author=Vale, Malcolm |title=The Civilization of Courts and Cities in the North, 1200–1500 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=297–351}}
 * {{cite book |author=Watts, John |title=The Making of Polities: Europe, 1300–1500 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=Cambridge Medieval Textbooks |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-79664-4}}
-* {{cite encyclopedia |author=Whitton, David |title=The Society of Northern Europe in the High Middle Ages, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=115–174}}
+* {{cite book |author=Whitton, David |title=The Society of Northern Europe in the High Middle Ages, 900–1200 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Illustrated History of Medieval Europe |editor=Holmes, George |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, UK |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-285220-5 |pages=115–174}}
 * {{cite book |author=Wickham, Chris |author-link=Christopher Wickham |title=The Inheritance of Rome: Illuminating the Dark Ages 400–1000 |publisher=Penguin Books |location=New York |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-311742-1}}
 * {{cite book|author=Cantor, Norman F. |author-link=Norman Cantor |title=Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth Century |year=1991 |publisher=W. Morrow |location=New York |isbn= 978-0-688-09406-5}}
@@ Dòng 111: / Dòng 111: @@
 * {{cite book |author=Stuard, Susan Mosher |title=Women in Medieval History and Historiography |publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press |year= 1987 |location=Philadelphia, PA |isbn= 978-0-8122-1290-7}}
 ===Tư liệu===
-* [http://www.the-orb.net/ ORB The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies] Academic peer reviewed articles and encyclopedia.
+* [http://www.the-orb.net/ ORB The Online Reference Book of Medieval Studies]
-* [https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/ The Labyrinth] Resources for Medieval Studies.
+* [https://blogs.commons.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/ The Labyrinth]
-* [http://www.netserf.org/ NetSERF] The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources.
+* [http://www.netserf.org/ NetSERF - The Internet Connection for Medieval Resources]
 * [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari : The Society for Medieval Military History]
-* [http://www.medievalmap.org/ Medievalmap.org] Interactive maps of the Medieval era (Flash plug-in required).
+* [http://www.medievalmap.org/ Interactive maps of the Medieval era]
-* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/medieval/medievalrealms.html Medieval Realms] Learning resources from the British Library including studies of beautiful medieval manuscripts.
+* [http://www.bl.uk/learning/histcitizen/medieval/medievalrealms.html Medieval Realms]
-* [http://www.medievalists.net/ Medievalists.net] News and articles about the period.
+* [http://www.medievalists.net/ News and articles about the period]
-* [[Medieval worlds|Medieval Worlds]], [https://medieval.vlg.oeaw.ac.at Official Website] Comparative and interdisciplinary articles about the period.
+* [https://medieval.vlg.oeaw.ac.at Comparative and interdisciplinary articles]
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